[edit]
Main article: History of Baghdad
For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Baghdad.
Foundation[edit]
Archaeological evidence indicates that the site of Baghdad had been occupied prior to its Abbasid foundation. An extensive facing of Neo-Babylonian brickwork has been identified along the western bank of the Tigris at Baghdad, with bricks stamped with the name and titles of Nebuchadnezzar II. Assyrian geographical catalogues during the reign of Sardanapalus from the Neo-Assyrian period record a place whose name was very similar to “Baghdad”, which likely refers to the town standing on the site where the Abbasids would later build their capital.
The Round City of Baghdad between 767 and 912 AD
After the fall of the Umayyads, the victorious Abbasids sought a new capital. On 30 July 762, the Caliph Al-Mansur commissioned Baghdad's construction, guided by the Iranian Barmakids. He believed Baghdad was ideal for ruling the Islamic Empire. Historian al-Tabari recorded a prophecy from Christian monks about a leader named Miklas building a great city in the area, and Al-Mansur, who was once called Miklas, saw this as a good omen. He expressed deep affection for the site, declaring it would be the home of his dynasty. The two designers who were hired by Al-Mansur to plan the city's design were Naubakht, a Zoroastrian who also determined that the date of the foundation of the city would be astrologically auspicious, and Mashallah, a Jew from Khorasan, Iran. They determined the city's auspicious founding date under the sign of Leo the lion, symbolizing strength and expansion.
Statue of Abu Ja'far al-Mansur the founder of Baghdad
The city's layout consisted of two large semicircles, with a 2 km-wide circular core known as the "Round City." It had parks, gardens, villas, and promenades. Unlike European cities of the time, Baghdad had a sanitation system, fountains, and public baths, with thousands of hammams enhancing hygiene. The mosque and guard headquarters stood at the center, though some central space's function remains unknown. Baghdad's circular design reflected ancient Near Eastern urban planning, similar to the Sasanian city of Gur and older Mesopotamian cities like Mari. While Tell Chuera and Tell al-Rawda also provide examples of this type of urban planning existing in Bronze Age Syria. This style of urban planning contrasted with Ancient Greek and Roman urban planning, in which cities are designed as squares or rectangles with streets intersecting each other at right angles.
Baghdad was designed to symbolize paradise as described in the Qur'an. It took four years (764–768) to build, with over 100,000 workers involved. Al-Mansur recruited engineers and artisans worldwide. Astrologers Naubakht Ahvazi and Mashallah advised starting construction under Leo, associated with fire, productivity, and expansion. Bricks for the city were 18 inches square, and Abu Hanifah supervised their production. A canal supplied water for drinking and construction. Marble was used extensively, including steps leading to the river. The Golden Gate Palace, home of the caliph, stood at Baghdad's center with a grand 48-meter green dome. Only the caliph could approach its esplanade on horseback. Nearby were officer residences and a guardhouse. After Caliph Al-Amin's death in 813, the palace ceased to be the caliph's residence. It was divided into three judicial districts: Round City (Madinat al-Mansur), al-Karkh (al-Sharqiyya), and Askar al-Mahdi. The city had four walls named after major destinations—Kufa, Basra, Khurasan, and Syria; their gates pointed in on these destinations. The gates were 2.4 km apart, with massive iron doors requiring several men to operate and walls, up to 44m thick and 30m high, were reinforced with a second wall, towers, and a moat for added defense.
Center of learning (8th–9th centuries)[edit]
Further information: Islamic Golden Age
Courtyard of the Abbasid palace, built by caliph al-Nasir.
Baghdad's strategic location along the Tigris and its abundant water supply contributed to its rapid growth. To prevent disturbances, Al-Mansur moved markets to al-Karkh. Over time, Baghdad became a hub for merchants and craftsmen. Officials called "Muhtasib" monitored trade to prevent fraud. Baghdad surpassed Ctesiphon, the former Sassanid capital, located 30 km southeast. The ruins of Ctesiphon remain in Salman Pak, where Salman the Persian is believed to be buried. Ctesiphon itself had replaced Seleucia, which had earlier succeeded Babylon. According to the traveler Ibn Battuta, Baghdad was one of the largest cities, not including the damage it has received. The residents are mostly Hanbalis. Most residents were Hanbali Muslims. The city housed Abu Hanifa's grave, marked by a mosque and cell. Its ruler, Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan, was a Tatar who had embraced Islam.Courtyard of Mustansiriyya Madrasa, established in 1227. Its building survived the Mongol invasion of 1258. The modern Mustansiriyah University was established in 1963.
Within a generation of its founding, Baghdad became a hub of learning and commerce. The city flourished into an unrivaled intellectual center of science, medicine, philosophy, and education, especially with the Abbasid translation movement began under the second caliph Al-Mansur and thrived under the seventh caliph Al-Ma'mun. Baytul-Hikmah or the "House of Wisdom" was among the most well known academies, and had the largest selection of books in the world by the middle of the 9th century.[citation needed] Notable scholars based in Baghdad during this time include translator Hunayn ibn Ishaq, mathematician al-Khwarizmi, and philosopher Al-Kindi. Baghdad was lively, with attractions like cabarets, chess halls, live plays, concerts, and acrobatics. Storytelling flourished, with professional storytellers (al-Qaskhun) captivating crowds, inspiring the tales of Arabian Nights.
Although Arabic was used as the language of science, the scholarship involved not only Arabs, but also Persians, Syriacs, Nestorians, Jews, Arab Christians, and people from other ethnic and religious groups native to the region. These are considered among the fundamental elements that contributed to the flourishing of scholarship in the Medieval Islamic world. Baghdad was also a significant center of Islamic religious learning, with Al-Jahiz contributing to the formation of Mu'tazili theology, as well as Al-Tabari culminating in the scholarship on the Quranic exegesis. Baghdad is likely to have been the largest city in the world from shortly after its foundation until the 930s, when it tied with Córdoba. Several estimates suggest that the city contained over a million inhabitants at its peak.
Many of the One Thousand and One Nights tales, widely known as the Arabian Nights, are set in Baghdad during this period. It would surpass even Constantinople in prosperity and size.
Among the notable features of Baghdad during this period were its exceptional libraries. Many of the Abbasid caliphs were patrons of learning and enjoyed collecting both ancient and contemporary literature. Although some of the princes of the previous Umayyad dynasty had begun to gather and translate Greek scientific literature, the Abbasids were the first to foster Greek learning on a large scale. Many of these libraries were private collections intended only for the use of the owners and their immediate friends, but the libraries of the caliphs and other officials soon took on a public or a semi-public character.
Four great libraries were established in Baghdad during this period. The earliest was that of the famous al-Ma'mun, who was caliph from 813 to 833. Another was established by Sabur ibn Ardashir in 991 or 993 for the literary men and scholars who frequented his academy. This second library was plundered and burned by the Seljuks only seventy years after it was established. This was a good example of the sort of library built up out of the needs and interests of a literary society. The last two were examples of madrasa or theological college libraries. The Nizamiyya of Baghdad was founded by the Persian Nizam al-Mulk, who was vizier of two early Seljuk sultans. It continued to operate even after the coming of the Mongols in 1258. The Mustansiriyya Madrasa, which owned an exceedingly rich library, was founded by al-Mustansir, the second last Abbasid caliph, who died in 1242. This would prove to be the last great library built by the caliphs of Baghdad.
Stagnation and invasions (10th–16th centuries)[edit]
Bab al-Wastani (built in 1121 AD) is the only surviving historic gate of Baghdad
By the 10th century, the city's population was between 1.2 million and 2 million. Baghdad's early meteoric growth eventually slowed due to troubles within the Caliphate, including relocations of the capital to Samarra (during 808–819 and 836–892), the loss of the western and easternmost provinces, and periods of political domination by the Iranian Buwayhids (945–1055) and Seljuk Turks (1055–1135). The Seljuks were a clan of the Oghuz Turks from Central Asia that converted to the Sunni branch of Islam. In 1040, they destroyed the Ghaznavids, taking over their land and in 1055, Tughril Beg, the leader of the Seljuks, took over Baghdad. The Seljuks expelled the Buyid dynasty of Shiites that had ruled for some time and took over power and control of Baghdad. They ruled as Sultans in the name of the Abbasid caliphs (they saw themselves as being part of the Abbasid regime). Tughril Beg saw himself as the protector of the Abbasid Caliphs.
Zumurrud Khatun Tomb (built in 1202 AD)
Baghdad was captured in 1394, 1534, 1623 and 1638. The city has been sieged in 812, 865, 946, 1157, 1258 and in 1393 and 1401, by Tamerlane. In 1058, Baghdad was captured by the Fatimids under the Turkish general Abu'l-Ḥārith Arslān al-Basasiri, an adherent of the Ismailis along with the 'Uqaylid Quraysh. Not long before the arrival of the Saljuqs in Baghdad, al-Basasiri petitioned to the Fatimid Imam-Caliph al-Mustansir to support him in conquering Baghdad on the Ismaili Imam's behalf. It has recently come to light that the famed Fatimid da'i, al-Mu'ayyad al-Shirazi, had a direct role in supporting al-Basasiri and helped the general to succeed in taking Mawṣil, Wāsit and Kufa. Soon after, by December 1058, a Shi'i adhān (call to prayer) was implemented in Baghdad and a khutbah (sermon) was delivered in the name of the Fatimid Imam-Caliph. Despite his Shi'i inclinations, Al-Basasiri received support from Sunnis and Shi'is alike, for whom opposition to the Saljuq power was a common factor.
Conquest of Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258 CE
On 10 February 1258, Baghdad was captured by the Mongols led by Hulegu, a grandson of Genghis Khan (Chingiz Khan), during the siege of Baghdad. Many quarters were ruined by fire, siege, or looting. The Mongols massacred most of the city's inhabitants, including the caliph Al-Musta'sim, and destroyed large sections of the city. The canals and dykes forming the city's irrigation system were also destroyed. During this time, in Baghdad, Christians and Shia were tolerated, while Sunnis were treated as enemies. The sack of Baghdad put an end to the Abbasid Caliphate. It has been argued that this marked an end to the Islamic Golden Age and served a blow from which Islamic civilization never fully recovered.
At this point, Baghdad was ruled by the Ilkhanate, a breakaway state of the Mongol Empire, ruling from Iran. In August 1393, Baghdad was occupied by the Central Asian Turkic conqueror Timur ("Tamerlane"), by marching there in only eight days from Shiraz. Sultan Ahmad Jalayir fled to Syria, where the Mamluk Sultan Barquq protected him and killed Timur's envoys. Timur left the Sarbadar prince Khwaja Mas'ud to govern Baghdad, but he was driven out when Ahmad Jalayir returned.
Khan Murjan, built in the 14th century as a caravanserai
In 1401, Baghdad was again sacked, by Timur, a Central Asian Turko-Mongol figure. When his forces took Baghdad, he spared almost no one, and ordered that each of his soldiers bring back two severed human heads. Baghdad became a provincial capital controlled by the Mongol Jalayirid (1400–1411), Turkic Kara Koyunlu (1411–1469), Turkic Ak Koyunlu (1469–1508), and the Iranian Safavid (1508–1534) dynasties.
Ottoman and Mamluks (16th–19th centuries)[edit]
See also: Baghdad Eyalet, Baghdad Vilayet, and History of Baghdad (1831–1917)
The Safavids took control of the city in 1509 under the leadership of Shah Ismail I. It remained under Safavid rule until the Ottomans seized it in 1535, but the Safavids regained control in 1624. A massacre occurred when the Shah's army entered the city. It remained under Safavid rule until 1639 when Sultan Murad IV recaptured it in 1638.
In 1534, Baghdad was captured by the Ottoman Empire, becoming the administrative capital of Ottoman Iraq. Under the Ottomans, Baghdad continued into a period of decline, partially as a result of the enmity between its rulers and Iranian Safavids, which did not accept the Sunni control of the city. Between 1623 and 1638, it returned to Iranian rule before falling back into Ottoman hands. Baghdad has suffered severely from visitations of the plague and cholera, and sometimes two-thirds of its population has been wiped out. The city became part of an eyalet and then a vilayet.
For a time, Baghdad had been the largest city in the Middle East. The city saw relative revival in the latter part of the 18th century, under Mamluk government. Direct Ottoman rule was reimposed by Ali Rıza Pasha in 1831. From 1851 to 1852 and from 1861 to 1867, Baghdad was governed, under the Ottoman Empire by Mehmed Namık Pasha. The Nuttall Encyclopedia reports the 1907 population of Baghdad as 185,000.
The city's municipality was established in 1868, and Ibrahim al-Daftari was appointed its first mayor. The year 1869 is of great importance in the history of Baghdad in the Ottoman era, as it was the beginning of what can be considered a distinct era of the Ottoman eras, the foundations of which were laid by Governor Midhat Pasha, who implemented a number of reform systems and laws that the state legislated during the era of reforms and reconstruction, which was called the Tanzimat era. The overall importance of Baghdad to the Ottomans was that they made the headquarters of the Sixth Corps of the Ottoman Army in the city.
By the 19th century, Baghdad emerged as a leading center for Jewish learning. The city had a Jewish population of over 6,000 and had numerous yeshivas. The Jewish population has grown so rapidly that by 1884, there were 30,000 Jews in Baghdad and by 1900, about 50,000, comprising over a quarter of the city's total population. Large-scale Jewish immigration from Kurdistan to Baghdad continued throughout this period. By the mid-19th century, the religious infrastructure of Baghdad grew to include a large yeshiva which trained up to sixty rabbis at time. Religious scholarship flourished in Baghdad, which produced great rabbis, such as Joseph Hayyim ben Eliahu Mazal-Tov, known as the Ben Ish Chai (1834–1909) or Rabbi Abdallah Somekh (1813–1889). During this time, Baghdadi Jews established a successful trade diaspora in China, India and Singapore.
Baghdad Eyalet in 1609
Baghdad Vilayet in 1900
Souk in Baghdad, 1876
Modern era[edit]
See also: Mandate for Mesopotamia, Kingdom of Iraq, Mandatory Iraq, Iraqi Republic (1958-1968), and Ba'athist Iraq
Al-Rashid Street in 1932Baghdad and southern Iraq remained under Ottoman rule until 1918, when they were captured by the British during World War I. In 1920, a revolt erupted in Baghdad against new British policies. It began in summer with mass demonstrations by Iraqis, including protests by embittered officers from the old Ottoman Army. The revolt gained momentum and spread to the middle and lower Euphrates. The British authorities retaliated by air bombing across Baghdad, which killed thousands of residents. In 1921, under the Mandate of Mesopotamia, Baghdad became the capital of the British-protected monarchy. Baghdad was made capital of the independent kingdom of Iraq in 1932.
Several architectural and planning projects were commissioned to reinforce this administration. During this period, the substantial Jewish community (probably exceeding 100,000 people) comprised between a quarter and a third of the city's population. The National Museum of Iraq and the University of Baghdad were built by King Faisal, who laid foundation for the modern Iraqi state. The city's population grew from an estimated 145,000 in 1900 to 580,000 in 1950. A development plan came in 1957, visioned by Frank Lloyd Wright. The plan proposed to build a cultural hub on an island on the river, with an opera house, museums, a university, shopping malls, and a 300-foot statue of the fifth Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid.
On 1 April 1941, members of the "Golden Square" led by former minister Rashid Ali al-Gaylani staged a coup in Baghdad and installed a pro-German and pro-Italian government to replace the pro-British government of Regent Abd al-Ilah. The British forces intervened in the resulting Anglo-Iraqi War. Fearing the advancement, Gaylani and his government had fled, and the mayor of Baghdad surrendered to the British and Commonwealth forces. On 1–2 June, during the ensuing power vacuum, Jewish residents were attacked following rumors they had aided the British. In what became known as the Farhud, over 180 Jews were killed and 1,000 injured, 900 Jewish homes were destroyed, and hundreds of Jewish properties were ransacked. Many Jewish girls were raped and children maimed in front of their families. Between 300 and 400 non-Jewish rioters were killed in the attempt to quell the violence. Between 1950 and 1951, Jews were targeted in series of bombings. According to Avi Shlaim, Israel was behind the bombings.
On 14 July 1958, a significant portion of the Iraqi Army under Abdul-Karim Qasim, staged a coup to topple the Kingdom of Iraq. The army seized control over Baghdad and stormed the radio station and the Al-Rehab Palace. Many people were brutally killed during the coup, including King Faisal II, former Regent Abd al-Ilah and former Prime Minister Nuri al-Said and members of the royal family. Many of the royal figures' bodies were dragged through the streets and mutilated. Mob violence emerged and several foreign nationals staying at the Baghdad Hotel, including Americans and Jordanians were killed. New principles were adopted for the city's development. New Baghdad and Sadr City were developed during the reign of Qasim. In 1960, Baghdad hosted an international conference with dignitaries from Iran, Venezuela and Saudi Arabia, that founded Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC).Baghdad in 1982During the 1970s, Baghdad experienced a period of prosperity and growth because of a sharp increase in the price of petroleum, Iraq's main export. New infrastructure including oil pipelines, modern sewerage, and highways were built. Master plans of the city (1967 and 1973) were delivered by the Polish planning office Miastoprojekt-Kraków, mediated by Polservice. Saddam Hussein sponsored architectural and artwork events, that attracted world's popular architects. The city had a vibrant lifestyle. Baghdad was called as "Nuremberg of 1930s" and "Las Vegas of the 1980s".
However, the Iran–Iraq War of the 1980s was a difficult time for the city, as money was diverted to the military and thousands of residents endured devastations. Iran launched a number of missiles and rockets on Baghdad, some of them hitting dangerously close to Al-Rashid Street and the Jewish Quarter. Power plants and oil refineries were damaged. A nuclear reactor near Baghdad was destroyed in an airstrike by Israel. Despite the war, preparations were underway for Baghdad to host a Non-Alignment Movement summit. Conference centers and hotels such as Palestine Hotel, Al-Mansour Hotel and Ishtar Hotel were built. However, the summit was later shifted to New Delhi, due to deteriorating security.
During the Gulf War, Baghdad was the most heavily defended area of Iraq. Initially, U.S. airstrikes on Baghdad failed and resulted a tactical victory for the Iraqi Air Force. Later, the Coalition forces proceeded with aerial bombings. Air defense, communication systems, bridges, chemical weapon facilities, and artilleries were damaged. Oil refineries and airport were targeted. On 13 February 1991, an aerial bombing attack in Amiriya killed at least 408 civilians. Shortly after the end of the war, ethnic Kurds and Shi'a Muslims led uprisings against the government. Clashes took place Shi'a rebels and the Republican Guard led by Qusay Hussein. Sadr City was besieged until the order restored. Another uprising occurred in 1999, after Ayatollah Muhammad Sadiq al-Sadr was assassinated in Najaf. Unrest began as large scale protests took place in Shia neighborhoods of Baghdad, specially Saddam City. The Republican Guard deployed in the district suppressed the demonstration, leaving between 27 and 100 dead.
Baghdad was targeted in frequent U.S. airstrikes. On 26 June 1993, cruise missiles were launched into downtown Baghdad, targeting the intelligence headquarters in the Mansour district. The attack killed nine civilians nearby, including actress and painter Layla Al-Attar. During the 1998 bombing of Iraq, missiles struck multiple locations across Baghdad, including presidential palaces, several Republican Guard barrakcs, and offices of the Ministry of Defense and the Military industry. On February 16, 2001, the U.S. launched air strikes on five military targets at Taji.
21st century[edit]
With decades of economic sanctions, the city experienced stangnation. By the end of the 1990s, the government's efforts resulted in the reconstruction of Baghdad. Damaged government offices, presidential palaces, bridges and road were restored. The airport was reopened with flights from Lebanon, Syria and Jordan. Numerous mosques and Islamic institutions were built under the Faith Campaign. In 2001, a broad initiative was launched to revive Baghdad's cultural heritage. Older mosques, churches, synagogues, mandis were rebuilt. However, these efforts were interrupted by the war.
Central Bank of Iraq Tower (under construction), designed by the Iraqi-British architect Zaha Hadid
Between 2003 and 2020, the city was disturbed by series of violence and terrorist activities. In 2003, the United States-led coalition invaded Iraq. On 9 April, the U.S forces captured Baghdad. A statue of Saddam Hussein was toppled at the Firdous Square, symbolizing the end of his rule. Shortly after the overthrow of the regime, an insurgency began against the U.S-led rule in Iraq. Also two minor riots took place, causing some distrubance in the population. Religious and ethnic minorities such as Kurds, Assyrians, Mandaeans and Jews were subjected to kidnappings, death threats and violence. On the eve of Ashura on 2 March 2004, one of the deadliest bombings took place in Baghdad, where at least 80–100 people were killed and 200 were injured. Over 965 people were killed in a bridge disaster on Al-Aimmah Bridge. Violence escalated into a civil war consisting of Shia and Sunni insurgents and coalition forces. Shi'a militias were Muqtada as-Sadr's Jaysh al-Mahdi and the Iranian-backed Special Groups and among Sunni insurgents, the largest was Al-Qaeda in Iraq (AQI).
Mansour district, before 2003, was home to wealthy Sunnis. It quickly became stronghold for the Sunni insurgency. While Shia militias were based in Sadr City, Kadhimiyah, and West Rasheed, with Bab Al-Sharqi becoming stronghold for the Mahdi Army. Later, they also expanded into the surrounding districts of eastern Baghdad. 9 Nissan, Karadah, and Rusafa were dominated by Shias. In 2007, coalition forces and Iraqi Army successfully defeated the insurgents. By 2009, the level of violence decreased. The period surrounding Provincial Elections was remarkably peaceful. But Baghdad witnessed an uptick in attacks in early April 2009, when a series of suicide bomb and vehicle-borne improvised explosive device attacks were perpetrated.  The war caused huge damage to Baghdad's transportation, power, and sanitary infrastructure. Though the war ended in 2011, instability continued. Baghdad was rocked by the Arab Spring protests. An insurgency lasted till 2013. It was followed by another war from 2013 to 2017, which included suicide bombings in January 2018 and January 2021. The city attracted global media attention on 3 January 2020, when Iranian general Qasem Soleimani was assassinated in a U.S. drone strike near Baghdad Airport.
Most reconstruction efforts have been devoted to the restoration and repair of badly damaged urban infrastructure. More visible efforts at reconstruction through private development have also been made. In late 2009, a construction plan was proposed to rebuild the heart of Baghdad, but the plan was never realized because corruption was involved in it. Various projects have commenced in Baghdad to induce stability. A large number of historical sites has been restored. Modern-scale development projects such as shopping malls, hotels and office spaces are now in Baghdad. The area surrounding the airport and presidential complex has emerged as new investment hospot and expansion of Baghdad. In December 2015, Baghdad was selected by UNESCO as the first Arab city of the center of literary creativity.
