[edit]
Main article: History of Dili
See also: History of Timor-Leste
Initial Portuguese settlement[edit]
Former coat of arms
Dili has played a central role in the history of Timor-Leste.: 6–8  However, early records about Timor, especially before the 1700s, are sparse.: 199  The tumultuous history of the city has resulted in a great deal of information being lost; archives in the city were destroyed in 1779, 1890, 1975, and 1999.: 7 
The island of Timor was possibly known as a source for sandalwood in the 15th century.: 10  The first recorded Portuguese voyage to the island from Portuguese Malacca occurred in 1516, returning with sandalwood. In 1521, sandalwood was left out of a list of products under royal monopoly, leaving most trade with Timor in the hands of private enterprises.: 201–202  Portuguese and Spanish interest in the island increased in the 1520s, with regular trade established by 1524.: 10  In the late 1500s, administrative officials began to be appointed to nearby Solor with jurisdiction over that island and Timor, signifying increasing state interest in Portuguese activities there.: 203 
The Netherlands began to compete for control of the island in 1613, especially in the west.: 10  A rebellion in 1629 forced the Portuguese off the island for three years.: 10  In 1641, a number of kings in Timor converted to Catholicism while seeking Portuguese protection. This introduced a political dimension to Portuguese influence, which had previously been primarily economic.: 206  Timor became administratively separated from Solor in 1646, although the exact administrative structure is unknown.: 208  It received its first dedicated governor in 1702, who resided in Lifau. This reflected the growing importance of Timor compared to nearby Flores.: 209  1749 saw Dutch military forces take control over large portions of the island, broadly reflecting current borders.: 210 
In 1769, as Lifau came under the increasing influence of powerful local families collectively known as the Topasses, the Portuguese governor António José Teles de Meneses moved the administration and 1,200 people east to establish a new capital.: 4–5  It was originally intended that the administration be set up at Vemasse further east, but perhaps because of the favourable geography, a settlement was established at Dili instead.: 17  This was at the time part of the Motael kingdom, whose leader was friendly with the Portuguese authorities. The governor occupied an existing fortified structure, and with the assistance of the Motael leader began to construct a new settlement. The area surrounding the settlement was wetlands fed by rivers from the mountains and proved conducive to rice cultivation. A wall was built to separate the coastal city from wetlands to its south. The initial settlement was divided between three populations, one mainly Portuguese, one of Mestiços and locals from other Portuguese colonies (which became Bidau), and one for troops from a kingdom thought to be in Flores.: 25 
An old map of Dili, showing the old city separated from Lahane to the south by marshes
From 1788 to 1790, a civil war broke out between the governor in Dili and an official based in Manatuto, which was resolved upon the arrival of a new governor. In response to Dutch provocations, a permanent military force was established in 1818.: 210  Some Europeans settled in Lahane to the south, beyond the wetland area. Significant construction was undertaken under governor José Maria Marques [de], who arrived in 1834 and rebuilt the settlement along a grid. This saw expansion along the coast, but also southwards as the wetlands between the original city and Lahane were channelised and drained. A road extended to Lahane and Dare.: 17, 25  The rebuilding saw the settlement being centred on its port, with the immediate port area containing trade facilities, church buildings, military buildings, government buildings, the residence of the governor and his deputy, a residence for a representative of the Motael kingdom, and a residence for the Queen of Manatuto. Of these, only the church and the Finance Deputy's house used masonry. To the east of this core was Bidau and a Chinese settlement, to the west was the main settlement of the Motael kingdom.: 26 
In 1844 Timor, along with Macau and Solor, was removed from the jurisdiction of Portuguese India, with the three areas becoming a new Portuguese province. A few years later in 1850, Portuguese Timor was removed from the jurisdiction of the governor of Macau, before being returned to the jurisdiction of Portuguese India in 1856.: 212–215  When English naturalist and explorer Alfred Russel Wallace visited in the 1860s, he wrote that the governor's house was "merely a low whitewashed cottage", and that all other buildings appeared to be mud and thatch. At the time swamps and mudflats surrounded the town, which did not extend to the mountains surrounding it.: 49  More permanent buildings of one or two stories were constructed throughout the late 19th century.: 26  A new church building was built in 1877.: 29 
1895 port and city plan
A revolt to the east led to the city being isolated in 1861; however, the revolt was defeated by the Portuguese and their Timorese allies.: 26  In 1863, Dili was declared a city (although the news may not have arrived to the city until the next year), and East Timor became directly subordinate to the Lisbon government. In 1866 the territory was again put under the jurisdiction of Macau. An 1887 mutiny in Dili led to the death of the governor at the time. The territory was separated from Macau for the last time in 1896, again coming directly under the jurisdiction of Lisbon, and becoming a full province in 1909.: 212–215  Another notable revolt took place in the years after the 1910 republican revolution in Portugal.: 11  The republican government downgraded the status of its overseas provinces to colonies.: 215  A civil government was established in 1913.: 685 
Former Market Hall built by the Portuguese
Permanent structures in Portuguese style continued to be constructed into the 20th century.: 30–32  A new town hall was built from 1912 to 1915. The main church was demolished in 1933, and a new cathedral opened in its place in 1937.: 29  (This cathedral was later destroyed by Allied bombing in the Second World War.): 60  Four distinct residential districts developed around the city core. Bidau was the largest, and Benamauc joined it on the eastern side. Caicole developed to the south between the city and Lahane. Colmera developed as a commercial area to the west with a large number of Muslim traders. Motael continued to develop, becoming the site of the city's lighthouse. Motael Church began to be built in 1901. Inland to the southwest, a Chinese cemetery was established, and beyond that a military area known as Taibesse.: 32–39  Lahane also saw significant development in the early 20th century, with its east and west side separated by a river.: 40  As the administrative structures developed, Dili became part of the Dili municipality in 1940, the first municipal administration to be created. At the time the municipality was larger, including what is now the Aileu Municipality.
Destruction, reconstruction, and Indonesian rule[edit]
A Japanese ship off Dili in 1943
During World War II, Portugal and its colonies remained neutral, but the Allies saw East Timor as a potential target for Japanese invasion. Upon the outbreak of the Pacific War in 1941, Australian and Dutch troops were sent to Dili despite Portuguese objections. In response, the Japanese invaded Dili as part of a two-pronged invasion of Timor. The city had been mostly abandoned prior to the invasion,: 12  and allied forces retreated further into the island. The Japanese left the Portuguese governor nominally in position, but took over administration. Much of Dili was destroyed during the war, from the initial Japanese invasion and from later allied bombings.: 12  Japanese forces on the island of Timor surrendered to Australian forces at the end of the war. Following the surrender, an Australian official travelled to Dili where on 23 September 1945 he informed the Portuguese governor of the Japanese surrender.
Dili in the 1940s was what today is the old city
Following the Second World War, Dili covered what today is the old core of the city, within the sucos of Acadiru Hun, Bemori, Bidau Lecidere, Caicoli, Colmera, Culu Hun, Gricenfor, Motael, and Santa Cruz.: 3–1  Portuguese Timor became a full part of Following the initial post-war reconstruction of Dili's immediately critical infrastructure, an urban plan was developed in 1951 covering urban layout, road development, zoning, and building regulations.: 18, 53  The plan envisioned separate neighbourhoods for Europeans, mestiços, Chinese, Arabs, and Timorese, and assumed there would be further rural-urban migration. Both this plan and later revisions in 1968 and 1972 assumed that the Timorese population would live on the edges of the city yet work near the centre.: 280–281  This plan was not completed, and the city remained under-developed,: 18, 53  with low density and where property outside of the central area was still built on with flimsy materials and used for subsistence cultivation.: 56  The second five-year development plan, which ran from 1959 to 1964, saw the reconstruction of the Port of Dili and a small amount of transport infrastructure.: 687 
A 1950 census found that the population of Dili was about 6,000 people, half 'civilised' (considered by Portuguese authorities to have sufficiently adopted Portuguese culture), including Mestiço, 'civilised' natives, Europeans, and other foreigners such as Goans and those from Portugal's African colonies. This was slightly over 1% of the total population of the colony.: 56 : 684  The 1960 census recorded the population of Dili to be about 7,000 people.: 684  By 1970, the urban population reached around 17,000.: 56  The city did not extend far beyond the area surrounding the port, and the population did not exceed 30,000 before 1975.: 283–284 
1965 map of Dili
Portuguese Timor became a full part of Portugal in 1951, although despite being made citizens of Portugal this did not bring the locals any political power. Governance remained in the control of Lisbon. The Portuguese Overseas Organic Law of 1963 created the first Legislative Council of the territory, which was given some of the powers formerly held by the governor. It also theoretically extended voting rights to the 'uncivilised', although property and tax requirements meant most were still unable to vote.: 686–687 
The 1974 Carnation Revolution in Portugal created immediate change in East Timor, with new political parties forming with the goal of independence from Portugal. Relationships between these new parties was fractious. Some, particularly the Timorese Democratic Union (UDT), advocated union with Indonesia.: 13  On 11 August 1975, the UDT initiated a coup.: 17  UDT control was limited outside of Dili, and on 20 August the opposing Fretilin party began its attempt to seize the city. Some houses were set on fire to assist the defence; however, after some days Fretilin succeeded in taking control of the city. The last Portuguese governor fled Dili for Atauro Island on 26 August, as the civil war continued.: 6 : 13  On 28 November, Fretilin declared independence in a ceremony in Dili. On 7 December, Indonesia landed paratroopers in the city and amphibious forces to its west, as part of an invasion of East Timor, leading many to flee the city.: 3 
The integration monument was built by Indonesian authorities to celebrate freedom from European rule
This invasion brought the territory under Indonesian rule. On 17 July 1976, Indonesia annexed East Timor, which it designated its 27th province.: 18  Indonesia continued to administer the territory from Dili, continuing formerly Portuguese use of places such as the Balide Comarca prison and Lahane Hospital. Despite Indonesian attempts to restrict rural-urban migration, the population of Dili continued to grow, reaching 80,000 people in 1985, and over 100,000 in 1999, and economic growth for the territory remained centred in Dili.: 8–9  Part of the internal migration was due to people fleeing the continuing conflict in rural areas.: 283  Indonesia developed the city's infrastructure, partly as an attempt to win over the population. Structures and monuments built during this time include the Immaculate Conception Cathedral, the Integration Statue commemorating the end of Portuguese rule, and the Cristo Rei of Dili.: 84  Nonetheless, many in the city continued to support the Fretilin-led resistance, providing a communications link between the rebels and the rest of the world, and setting up safe houses in the city. Others who supported Indonesian rule became informants, known as mau'hu. By the 1990s, urban sprawl had taken up much of the available flat land around the original settlement.: 3–1 
In the 1980s, resistance to Indonesian rule grew among youth in the city.: 10  Nonetheless, towards the end of the decade Indonesia began allowing foreign tourists access to the city, with the entire province previously being restricted.: 52  A visit by Pope John Paul II in 1989 was interrupted by independence activists.: 14  On 12 November 1991, Indonesian forces were filmed shooting at a funeral procession. This led to global condemnation of Indonesia's rule in East Timor, increasing pressure for East Timorese self-determination.: 17–18  The 1997 Asian financial crisis along with a drought related to an El Niño event led to profound food insecurity, worse for Dili than any other city in Indonesia. The crisis also precipitated the resignation of Indonesian President Suharto, whose successor, B. J. Habibie, soon approved a referendum on East Timorese independence.: 10  Outbreaks of violence from pro-Indonesian militia occurred throughout the country in the months leading up to the vote.: 15  In August 1999, East Timor voted for independence.: 10 
Fires burning in Dili on 8 September 1999, during a period of violence following the independence referendum
The vote led to a period of extreme violence, as pro-Indonesian militia were unchecked by the Indonesian military that was meant to be providing security. On 4 September, when the result was announced, Indonesian police began to leave Dili. In the first 48 hours, international media organisations present in the city reported 145 deaths. Most foreigners were evacuated.: 17  Violence continued for several days, causing significant damage to infrastructure and housing in the city.: 19 : 103  Administrative buildings were looted, and much of the city was destroyed by fire. 120,000 people became refugees. International pressure grew for an international peacekeeping force to replace the Indonesian military, which Indonesia agreed to on 12 September. On 14 September, the UN evacuated refugees that had been sheltering in its Dili compound to Australia. The Australian-led International Force East Timor arrived on 20 September.
Growth under UN rule and independence[edit]
Dili in 1999
Dili continued to grow under UN rule. As Indonesian infrastructure investment outside of Dili was not replicated by the UN government, leaving it to deteriorate, population growth was driven in part due to internal migration from these areas to the city.: 12  Housing left abandoned by Indonesians in 1999 was occupied by squatters. This was most common in the western areas of the city.: 227  Most inward migration during this period was from eastern areas of the country.: 18  Population growth combined with a poor economy led to an increase of urban poverty and unemployment, especially amongst youth.: 12  This was despite the city reaping 80% of the economic benefits of reconstruction efforts; 65% of direct jobs created by the UN were in Dili, a figure that rose to 80% when including indirect jobs.: 13 
Following the beginning of UN rule, the population of Dili grew by over 10% annually. This was a result of both rural-urban migration, and a baby boom driven by the country having the highest fertility rate in the world. By 2004, the population had reached 173,541 people,: 13  with unemployment at 26.9% overall, and 43.4% for men aged 15–29. Around half of employment for these young men was informal.: 14  In 2005 a new urban master plan was developed by a group based in the Faculty of Architecture of the Technical University of Lisbon.: 280–281  Issues with food security reoccurred periodically throughout the early years of independence.: 15  From 1990 to 2014, agricultural use of the flat land around Dili is thought to have decreased by around 40%, replaced by horticulture and aquaculture in the east and by urban areas in the west. Wetlands have also further decreased, drained and built upon.: 274 
By 2006, Dili produced half of the country's non-oil GDP.: 14  It was also receiving two-thirds of government expenditure, and 80% of goods and services.: 16  However, economic benefits were distributed unequally. 1999 saw the end of Indonesian subsidises of core food products, which alongside infrastructure destruction led to rapid inflation. Under UN rule, the use of the US dollar and the purchasing power of international organisations led to price increases. Together, these factors led to extremely high costs of living. Electricity cost four times as much as it did in Indonesia, averaging $15 per household. Telecommunications and petrol similarly grew in price compared to Indonesia. By 2006 Dili had the eighth-highest living costs of any city in Asia, despite the country's having Asia's lowest GDP.: 14  At this point, the city had around 300 youth groups, some of which were involved in the informal economy.: 15  These groups, driven by unemployment, were often connected to former guerrillas and current politicians.: 16  Many developed identities reflecting the regional origins of their members, especially with regards to the broad distinction between those from the east and those from the west.: 18 
In April 2006, disputes within the military between a leadership mostly from the east of the country and soldiers mostly from the west spilled over into street violence in Dili.: 1, 13  Disputes over housing, again mostly between groups from the east and west, contributed to property destruction.: 143  Most of the 150,000 people displaced were from Dili,: 188  including about half of the city's residents.: 196  Around 72,000 people ended up in camps, while 80,000 fled to rural areas.: 13  Rice prices in the city increased by half by October 2006, and then almost doubled again by February 2007.: 15  Foreign military intervention was needed to restore order.: 1 
A National Recovery Strategy was put in place following the 2007 national election to return these people.: 188  In 2008, around 30,000 people displaced from Dili remained in camps, while 70,000 continued to live with friends or family.: 3  Continuing unrest led to the attempted assassinations of the country's president and prime minister.: 86  By 2009 most displaced people had returned to the city, and the camps were officially closed by the end of the year. However, some community tensions remained.: 187 : 9  In a couple of areas, there were two or three fights a week between opposing youth groups.: 191  Nonetheless, large-scale violence did not return. Mediation teams were utilised to assist in the resettlement of some displaced people to their previous homes.: 10 
In May 2009, the year-long Dili City of Peace campaign was launched by Jose Ramos-Horta. The initiative was created to build unity and prevent violence, with the 2006 East Timorese crisis in mind. The campaign included dialogues between different sectors of Timorese society, a cycling tour, a Dili marathon, and a reforestation initiative. Focusing the peace campaign on Dili reflects the influence it has on the entire country, with the government expecting its impacts would extend beyond the city itself.: 161  The Latelek (Bridge) Project was instituted from 2010 to 2012 by some organs of the Catholic Church to improve community cohesion, reintegrating previously displaced individuals with those who had remained.: 188–189  Other programs were initiated by the government and NGOs to tackle issues such as skills development, youth engagement, and women's empowerment. Some sucos developed community laws to reduce violence.: 192 
The development of the city since independence has led to many sites being replaced or repurposed. In 2009 the area around the Indonesian-built Integration Monument was redesignated as the 5 May Park, the date upon which it was agreed East Timor could hold its independence referendum. A 1960s hotel, Hotel Turismo, which had been a site of independence activities, was demolished in 2010 and rebuilt. The former Dili regency police headquarters has been demolished and replaced by the cultural centre of the Indonesian embassy. By 2010 the municipal population reached 234,026 people,: 95  of which 210,250 lived in urban areas.: 15  In 2018 the population reached 281,000 people. During a period of COVID-19 restrictions, the city was hit by the worst flood in 50 years in April 2021.
